引用 论文写作：Unit 7 Writing Research Papers
引用
张代生 的 论文写作：Unit 7 Writing Research Papers
Unit 7 Writing Research Papers创作专业论文
I． Title标题
General Principles:
Include the topic of the study—do not make the title so creative that readers do not know what the topic of your research is.
Include the scope of the study.
Make it easy to understand without reading the paper first.
Include key words so it is easy to categorize and find in searches.
Follow standard capitalization for your field (e. g. rarely all capital letters).
Eg.
On The Tragic Personality of Hamlet
Culture and Translation of International Advertisement
A Linguistic Study on the Style of English Economic and Trade Contracts
From Grammar-Translation Method to Communicative Language Teaching
----The Relationship between Language Teaching and Linguistic Theories
Negotiating Styles
HOW TO TRANSLATE ENGLISH HUMORS
What is the average number of words in the titles?
Are the titles complete sentences or phrases?
Are any of the titles in question format?
What tense or verb forms are used? (e. g., -ing verbs, infinitive verbs)?
What punctuation exists (capitalization, periods, commas, colon)?
What makes these titles attractive to the reders in this field?
II. Abstract摘要
What is an abstract?
An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components of an abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work.
Why write an abstract?
The two most important reasons are for selection and indexing.
Abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.
When do people write abstracts?
- when submitting articles to journals
- when applying for research grants
- when writing a book proposal
- when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or MA thesis
- when writing a proposal for a conference paper
- when writing a proposal for a book chapter
Types of Abstracts
1.Descriptive Abstracts说明性摘要、描述性摘要，indicative abstract指示性摘要 ，topic abstract论点摘要
2.Informative Abstracts报道性摘要，信息型摘要或资料性摘要
Descriptive Abstracts
A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.
Informative Abstracts
The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.
How do I write an abstract?
Key Process Elements:
1. Reason for Writing:
What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
2. Problem:
What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
3. Methodology:
An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
4. Results:
Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
5. Implications:
What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?
All abstracts include:
Background: introduce the topic(optional)
Purpose of the study: “The purpose of this study is…”
Methods of the study: overview of the main results
Findings/Results of the study: overview of the main results
Conclusions, implications or significance of the study (optional)
因为摘要部分比较短，又需要概括论文中所有的重要论点，因此需要使用标志性的句子来增强效果。
标志性的句子
Topic sentence –introducing the purpose of the paper
The purpose of this paper is…
The primary goal of this research is…
In this paper, we aim at…
The work presented in this paper focuses on several aspects of…
The overall objective of this study is…
Methods introduction
The method used in our study is known as…
The technique we applied is referred to as…
This research has recorded valuable data using the newly developed method of…
The test equipment which was used consisted of…
A number of experiments were performed to check…
Concluding sentences
The results of the experiments(s) indicate that…
The results show (or suggest that)…
From our experiment(s), the authors concluded that…
Our work involving… proves to be encouraging.
1. The full citation of the source preceding the abstract.
2. The most important information first.
3. The same level of language found in the original, including technical language.
4. Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
5. Clear, concise, and powerful language.
Abstracts may include:
1. The thesis of the work in the first sentence.
2. The background that places the work in the larger body of literature.
3. The same chronological structure of the original work.
How not to write a abstract:
1. Do not refer extensively to other works.
2. Do not add information not contained in the original work.
3. Do not define terms.
If you are abstracting your own writing…
Reverse outlining:反向概述
This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the one main idea that is in each paragraph on a separate piece of paper. For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but they are grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the several ideas in each section and then distill（提炼）them into one statement.
Cut and paste:剪贴
To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that particularly capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated 压缩，节略by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities人文学科 draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate分离 these sentences in a separate document and work on revising these disparate sentences into a unified paragraph.
If you are abstracting someone else's writing…
When abstracting something you have not written you do not have the luxury of cutting and pasting. Instead, it is up to you to define what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:
Identify key terms:
Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract be sure to incorporate 包含the key terms.
Highlight（摘取） key phrases and sentences:
Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, re-write the sentences and phrases in your own words.
Don't look back:
After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.
Revise, revise, revise
Example 1: Humanities Abstract
Kenneth Tait Andrews,
"'Freedom is a constant struggle': The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984" Ph.D.
State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998
This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints' movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Indeed, some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change. Typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.
What the dissertation does
This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints' movements face when they try to do so.
How the dissertation does it
The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.
What materials are used
Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.
Conclusion
This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Indeed, some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change. Typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.
Keywords
Civil Rights Movement
Mississippi
voting rights
desegregation
Example 2: Science Abstract
Luis Lehner, "Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes" Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998
The problem of detecting gravitational radiation（引力辐射） is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite（加速） the search and analysis of the detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.
This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.
Why do this study
The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe and Japan. The theoretical modeling（模具） of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite（加速） the search and analysis of the detected signals.
What the study does
The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm（算法，规则系统） capable of evolving（推理出） black holes in 3D asymptotically（渐进地） flat spacetimes. Using compactification （紧化）techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous（单值的，明确的） calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source（致密电源）. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.
Results
This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.
Keywords
gravitational radiation (GR)
spacetimes
black holes
Sample 3：中英文摘要实例比较
高校学生社区社会生态及其特征分析
传统校园社会向现代高校社会转变的重要特征之一是高校学生社区的日臻成熟。高校社区社会生态的优劣对学生的人格塑造、道德取向、行为规范、心理品质和文化镌刻，乃至对未来社会的主流文化的倾向都具有深刻的影响。社区社会生态是一个复杂而特殊的系统，它包含了物质层面、制度层面、文化层面、社会心理层面的等多种要素的相互作用与和谐共生。对这个系统的深度认识和把握，不仅具有理论意义，更有审视学生工作变革走向的现实意义。
【关键词】高校学生社区 社会生态 学生工作
v An Analysis of the Social Zoology of University Students’ Community and Its Features
v Abstract: One of the important features of the alteration from traditional campus society to modern university society is that the university students’ community is getting increasingly mature. The condition of the social zoology of university students’ community may have great influence on the students’ character molding, moral tropism, behavior criterion, psychological quality, cultural engraving, and even the future trend of mainstream culture. The social zoology of community is a special and complex system, which results from the mutual effect and harmonious intergrowth of various social aspects: material, system, culture and social psychology. The systematic and profound knowledge and mastery of this particular system not only has a great theoretical significance, but also practically contributes a lot to the survey of the direction of university student affairs reform.
v Key words: university students’community; social zoology；student affairs
Sample 4:
v The Exploration of the Essence of Poetry Translation
Zhang Guoping
v (Class 1, Grade 2002, Foreign Languages Dept., Nanjing University of Finance & Economics)
v Abstract: No translation of any poem can be excellent if it only expresses the literal meaning. What should be done is to read between the lines and try to convey the implied spirit of the poem. This paper puts its focus on the translation of Chinese poems, emphasizing that good translation should catch the essence of the original verse by picking out four important factors that consist of the essence of poetry translation. It also explains how to grasp the essence of poetry translation by providing some possible methods.
v Key words: poetry translation; image; artistic conception; style; poetic sense
Sample 5: The Contrast in English and Chinese Cultural Thinking Styles and China’s EFL Teaching
Liu Hao
v Abstract: Language alone is not enough for successful learning and communication with the target language. The awareness of cultural difference, particularly the differences between English and Chinese cultural thinking styles also plays an important role in EFL teaching. Therefore, the differences between English and Chinese thinking styles and linguistic forms are explored from such perspectives as linear vs. circular, direct vs. indirect, objective vs. subjective, particular vs. general, accurate vs. vague, individualist vs. collectivist, abstract vs. concrete. In the meantime, the possible impact of the differences between English and Chinese cultural thinking styles on China’s EFL teaching is discussed in the hope of arousing sufficient attention to differences in cultural thinking styles among English teachers and learners in China’s EFL teaching and learning.
v Key words: cultural thinking style; contrast; English; Chinese; China’s EFL teaching
v
《EI－engineering information》美国工程索引对英文摘要的基本要求
1 英文摘要的完整性
目前，大多数作者在写英文摘要时，都是把论文前面的中文摘要(一般都写得很简单)翻译成英文。这种做法忽略了这样一个事实：由于论文是用中文写作的，中文读者在看了中文摘要后，不详之处还可以从论文全文中获得全面、详细的信息，但由于英文读者(如《EI》的编辑)一般看不懂中文，英文摘要成了他唯一的信息源。因此，这里要特别提出并强调英文摘要的完整性，即英文摘要所提供的信息必须是完整的。这样，即使读者看不懂中文，只需要通过英文摘要就能对论文的主要目的，解决问题的主要方法、过程，及主要的结果、结论和文章的创新、独到之处,有一个较为完整的了解。注重定量分析是科学研究的重要特征之一。这一点也应该体现在英文摘要的写作中。因此，在写作英文摘要时，要避免过于笼统的、空洞无物的一般论述和结论。要尽量利用文章中的最具体的语言来阐述你的方法、过程、结果和结论，这样既可以给读者一个清晰的思路，又可以使你的论述言之有物、有根有据，使读者对你的研究工作有一个清晰、全面的认识。当然，这并不意味着中文摘要就不必强调完整性。事实上，在将中文摘要单独上网发布或文章被收入中文文摘期刊时，中文摘要所提供的信息也必须具有完整性。另外，由于东、西方文化传统存在很大的差别，我国长期以来的传统教育都有些过分强调知识分子要“谦虚谨慎、戒骄戒躁”，因此我国学者在写作论文时，一般不注重(或不敢)突出表现自己所做的贡献。这一点与西方的传统恰恰相反。西方的学者在写论文时总是很明确地突出自己的贡献，突出自己的创新、独到之处。西方的读者在阅读论文时也总是特别关注论文有什么创新独到之处，否则就认为论文是不值得读的。由于中、英文摘要的读者对象不同，鉴于上述两方面的因素，论文中的中、英文摘要不必强求一致。
2 《EI》对英文摘要的写作要求
目前，由作者写作的英文摘要，绝大多数都比较粗糙，离参与国际交流的要求相距甚远，需要进行大的修改，有时甚至是重写。这一方面是由于作者英文写作水平有限;另一方面也由于大多数作者对英文摘要的写作要求和国际惯例不甚了解。下面就根据《EI》对英文摘要的写作要求，谈谈如何写好科技论文的英文摘要。
《EI》中国信息部要求信息性文摘(Information Abstract)应该用简洁、明确的语言(一般不超过150 words)将论文的“目的(Purposes)”，主要的研究“过程(Procedures)”及所采用的“方法(Methods)”，由此得到的主要“结果(Results)”和得出的重要“结论(Conclusions)”表达清楚。如有可能，还应尽量提一句论文结果和结论的应用范围和应用情况。也就是说，要写好英文摘要，作者必须回答好以下几个问题：
1) 本文的目的或要解决的问题(What I want to do?)
2) 解决问题的方法及过程(How I did it?)
3) 主要结果及结论(What results did I get and what conclusions can I draw)
4) 本文的创新、独到之处(What is new and original in this paper?)
3 英文摘要各部分的写作
根据《EI》对英文摘要的写作要求，英文摘要的写作并没有一成不变的格式，但一般来说，英文摘要是对原始文献不加诠释或评论的准确而简短的概括，并要求它能反映原始文献的主要信息。
3.1 目的（What I want to do?）
目的。主要说明作者写作此文的目的，或本文主要解决的问题。一般来说，一篇好的英文摘要，一开头就应该把作者本文的目的或要解决的主要问题非常明确地交待清楚。必要时，可利用论文中所列的最新文献，简要介绍前人的工作，但这种介绍一定要极其简练。在这方面，《EI》提出了两点具体要求：
1） Eliminate or minimize background information(不谈或尽量少谈背景信息)．
2） Avoid repeating the title or part of the title in the first sentence of the abstract (避免在摘要的第一句话重复使用题目或题目的一部分)。
3.2 过程与方法(How I did it?)
过程及方法。主要说明作者主要工作过程及所用的方法，也应包括众多的边界条件，使用的主要设备和仪器。在英文摘要中，过程与方法的阐述起着承前启后的作用。开头交待了要解决的问题(What I want to do)之后，接着要回答的自然就是如何解决问题(How I did it)，而且，最后的结果和结论也往往与研究过程及方法是密切相关的。大多数作者在阐述过程与方法时，最常见的问题是泛泛而谈、空洞无物，只有定性的描述，使读者很难清楚地了解论文中解决问题的过程和方法。因此，在说明过程与方法时，应结合(指向)论文中的公式、实验框图等来进行阐述，这样可以既给读者一个清晰的思路，又给那些看不懂中文(但却可以看懂公式、图、表等)的英文读者以一种可信的感觉。
3.3 结果和结论(What results did I get and what conclusions can I draw?)
结果和结论部分代表着文章的主要成就和贡献，论文有没有价值，值不值得读者阅读，主要取决于你所获得的结果和所得出的结论。因此，在写作结果和结论部分时，一般都要尽量结合实验结果或仿真结果的图、表、曲线等来加以说明，使结论部分言之有物，有根有据；同时，对那些看不懂中文的英文读者来说，通过这些图表，结合英文摘要的说明就可以比较清楚地了解论文的结果和结论。也只有这样，论文的结论才有说服力。如有可能，在结尾部分还可以将论文的结果和他人最新的研究结果进行比较，以突出论文的主要贡献和创新、独到之处(回答What is new and original in this paper)。
3.4 如何提高英文摘要的文字效能
《EI》很看重英文摘要的文字效能。为了提高文字效能，应尽量删去所有多余的字、句。在这方面，《EI》提出了两个原则：
1) Limit the abstract to new information(摘要中只谈新的信息)。
2) trive for brevity(尽量使摘要简洁)。
就目前来看，由于大多数作者在英文写作方面都比较欠缺，因此，由作者所写的英文摘要离《EI》的要求相距甚远。有的作者写出很长的英文摘要，但文字效能很低，多余的字、句很多；有的作者写的英文摘要很短，但也存在多余的字句。总而言之，就是文字的信息含量少。因此，《EI》中国信息部还对英文摘要的写作提出了以下几点具体要求。
3.5 关于英文摘要的句法
关于英文摘要的句法，《EI》提出了以下3个一般原则：
1) 尽量用短句(use short sentences)。
2) 描述作者的工作一般用过去时态(因为工作是在过去做的)，但在陈述由这些工作所得出的结论时，应该用现在时态。
3) 一般都应使用动词的主动语态，如：写成A exceeds B比写成B is exceeded by A更好。
英文摘要中的常用句型及词汇
1 介绍文章作者观点和研讨课题内容
1.1 文章内容与作者观点
present, describe, report, introduce, explain, illustrate, deal with
1.2 文章研究课题
study, consider, discuss, investigate, analyze, state, develop
1.3 文章涉及范围
contain, cover, include
The effect/sensitivity/function of certain … was observed/detected/studied…
The author/writer presents/looks at/explores…
1.4 综述与概括
review, summary, outline, abstract
1.5 文章重点
concentrate, place, give, be, pay,
attention is concentrated on, there is a focus on, attention is paid to, the emphasis is on
The paper focuses on/ mainly discusses / deals with / describes/ reports on /analyzes…
1.6 文章目的
The purpose for/of/ aim of/ objective of this study is to explain……
In order to…, This paper describes…. This paper intends/aims to…
This paper intends/aims to discuss /compares … with…
2 介绍文章成果
2.1 成果的获取和开发
provide for, develop, establish, give, be designed to do sth, solve, record, furnish, realize, achieve, produce, construct, improve, be deduced from, be derived from, be obtained for
2.2 观察和证明
show, observe, monitor, find, note, demonstrate, indicate, exhibit, point out
The result shows / It proved / The authors found that…
2.3 运算和计量
calculate, estimate, measure, determine
2.4 应用与用途
be used to, be applied to
2.5 评估与比较
evaluate, assess, compare, agree with
2.6 试验与实验
test, experiment on, be carried out, be designed to do sth
A(n) study / investigation was made /designed to …
2.7 论证与依据
be based on, based on, be taken as reference
2.8 推荐与建议
be proposed for, suggest, suggestions be made for, recommend, recommendations are made
The authors suggest /consider that…
2.9 结论
It was concluded that, be arrived at…
3 介绍进一步研究的必要性、方向和关键问题
need for, necessity to do sth, require, necessary, describe, expect, important
摘要通常只有一个段落，包括：
Background: introduce the topic(optional)
Purpose of the study: “The purpose of this study is…”
Methods of the study: overview of the main results
Findings/Results of the study: overview of the main results
Conclusions, implications or significance of the study (optional)
因为摘要部分比较短，又需要概括论文中所有的重要论点，因此需要使用标志性的句子来增强效果。下面我们给出一些摘要中有用的句子和短语，注意动词时态的变化：
Topic sentence –introducing the purpose of the paper
The purpose of this paper is…
The primary goal of this research is…
In this paper, we aim at…
The work presented in this paper focuses on several aspects of…
The overall objective of this study is…
Methods introduction
The method used in our study is known as…
The technique we applied is referred to as…
This research has recorded valuable data using the newly developed method of…
The test equipment which was used consisted of…
A number of experiments were performed to check…
Concluding sentences
The results of the experiments(s) indicate that…
The results show (or suggest that)…
From our experiment(s), the authors concluded that…
Our work involving… proves to be encouraging.
Part Six Abstracts
This part provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down to isolate their component parts.
An abstract is a self-contained独立的, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline（组成部分因学科不同而不同）; an abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope(范围，领域), purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted摘录 passage.
You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are for selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in the longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.
When do people write abstracts?
- when submitting articles to journals
- when applying for research grants
- when writing a book proposal
- when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or MA thesis
- when writing a proposal for a conference paper
- when writing a proposal for a book chapter
Most of the time the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people's work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates, most often in seminar-style classes, are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.
There are two types of abstracts: Descriptive and Informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called Critical, but it is rarely used.
Descriptive Abstracts说明性摘要、描述性摘要，也称为指示性摘要 (indicative abstract)，或论点摘要（topic abstract）
A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.
一般只用二、三句话概括论文的主题, 而不涉及论据和结论, 多用于综述、会议报告等。此类摘要可用于帮助读者决定是否需要阅读全文。
Informative Abstracts报道性摘要，信息型摘要或资料性摘要
The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate(替代物) for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.
其特点是全面、简要地概括论文的目的、方法、主要数据和结论。通常, 这种摘要可部分地取代阅读全文。
Here is an example of a descriptive and informative abstract of this handout:
"How to Write an Abstract," UNC-CH Writing Center, <http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/abstracts.html>
Descriptive Abstract:
The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.
Informative Abstract:
Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their project. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, online journal articles, and internal office communication. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.
Which type should I use?
Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.
The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory强制的components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:
Key Process Elements:
6. Reason for Writing:
What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
7. Problem:
What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
8. Methodology:
An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
9. Results:
Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
10. Implications:
What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?
All abstracts include:
6. The full citation of the source preceding the abstract.
7. The most important information first.
8. The same level of language found in the original, including technical language.
9. Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
10. Clear, concise, and powerful language.
Abstracts may include:
4. The thesis of the work in the first sentence.
5. The background that places the work in the larger body of literature.
6. The same chronological structure of the original work.
How not to write a abstract:
4. Do not refer extensively to other works.
5. Do not add information not contained in the original work.
6. Do not define terms.
If you are abstracting your own writing…
When abstracting your own work it may be difficult to condense压缩 a piece of writing that you agonized辛苦写成 over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.
Reverse outlining:反向概述
This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the one main idea that is in each paragraph on a separate piece of paper. For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but they are grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the several ideas in each section and then distill 提取them into one statement.
Cut and paste:剪贴
To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that particularly capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated 压缩，节略by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities人文学科 draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate分离 these sentences in a separate document and work on revising these disparate sentences into a unified paragraph.
If you are abstracting someone else's writing…
When abstracting something you have not written you do not have the luxury of cutting and pasting. Instead, it is up to you to define what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:
Identify key terms:
Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract be sure to incorporate 包含the key terms.
Highlight key phrases and sentences:
Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, re-write the sentences and phrases in your own words.
Don't look back:
After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.
Revise, revise, revise
No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else's, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous（无关的，不重要的） words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest amount of space.
Example 1: Humanities Abstract
Kenneth Tait Andrews,
"'Freedom is a constant struggle': The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984" Ph.D.
State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998
This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints' movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Indeed, some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change. Typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.
Now let's break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled（浓缩） his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.
What the dissertation does
This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify（阐明了） the process by which movements transform （转变）social structures and the constraints'（限制，压制） movements face when they try to do so.
How the dissertation does it
The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.
What materials are used
Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.
Conclusion
This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential（无意义的）. Indeed, some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites（精英） as the agents driving institutional change. Typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage（影响） brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge（形成） independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling （推动）change in an array of（一系列） local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.
Keywords
Civil Rights Movement
Mississippi
voting rights
desegregation
Luis Lehner, "Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes" Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998
The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.
This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.
Why do this study
The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.
What the study does
The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.
Results
This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.
Keywords
gravitational radiation (GR)
spacetimes
black holes
Sample 3：
v The Exploration of the Essence of Poetry Translation
v (Class 1, Grade 2002, Foreign Languages Dept., Nanjing University of Finance & Economics)
v Abstract: No translation of any poem can be excellent if it only expresses the literal meaning. What should be done is to read between the lines and try to convey the implied spirit of the poem. This paper puts its focus on the translation of Chinese poems, emphasizing that good translation should catch the essence of the original verse by picking out four important factors that consist of the essence of poetry translation. It also explains how to grasp the essence of poetry translation by providing some possible methods.
v Key words: poetry translation; image; artistic conception; style; poetic sense
Sample 4: 中英文摘要实例比较
高校学生社区社会生态及其特征分析
【摘要】 传统校园社会向现代高校社会转变的重要特征之一是高校学生社区的日臻成熟。高校社区社会生态的优劣对学生的人格塑造、道德取向、行为规范、心理品质和文化镌刻，乃至对未来社会的主流文化的倾向都具有深刻的影响。社区社会生态是一个复杂而特殊的系统，它包含了物质层面、制度层面、文化层面、社会心理层面的等多种要素的相互作用与和谐共生。对这个系统的深度认识和把握，不仅具有理论意义，更有审视学生工作变革走向的现实意义。
【关键词】高校学生社区 社会生态 学生工作
v An Analysis of the Social Zoology of University Students’ Community and Its Features
v Abstract: One of the important features of the alteration from traditional campus society to modern university society is that the university students’ community is getting increasingly mature. The condition of the social zoology of university students’ community may have great influence on the students’ character molding, moral tropism, behavior criterion, psychological quality, cultural engraving, and even the future trend of mainstream culture. The social zoology of community is a special and complex system, which results from the mutual effect and harmonious intergrowth of various social aspects: material, system, culture and social psychology. The systematic and profound knowledge and mastery of this particular system not only has a great theoretical significance, but also practically contributes a lot to the survey of the direction of university student affairs reform.
v Key words: university students’community; social zoology；student affairs
Sample 5: The Contrast in English and Chinese Cultural Thinking Styles and China’s EFL Teaching
Liu Hao
v Abstract: Language alone is not enough for successful learning and communication with the target language. The awareness of cultural difference, particularly the differences between English and Chinese cultural thinking styles also plays an important role in EFL teaching. Therefore, the differences between English and Chinese thinking styles and linguistic forms are explored from such perspectives as linear vs. circular, direct vs. indirect, objective vs. subjective, particular vs. general, accurate vs. vague, individualist vs. collectivist, abstract vs. concrete. In the meantime, the possible impact of the differences between English and Chinese cultural thinking styles on China’s EFL teaching is discussed in the hope of arousing sufficient attention to differences in cultural thinking styles among English teachers and learners in China’s EFL teaching and learning.
v Key words: cultural thinking style; contrast; English; Chinese; China’s EFL teaching
5 《EI》对英文摘要的基本要求
5.1 英文摘要的完整性
目前，大多数作者在写英文摘要时，都是把论文前面的中文摘要(一般都写得很简单)翻译成英文。这种做法忽略了这样一个事实：由于论文是用中文写作的，中文读者在看了中文摘要后，不详之处还可以从论文全文中获得全面、详细的信息，但由于英文读者(如《EI》的编辑)一般看不懂中文，英文摘要成了他唯一的信息源。因此，这里要特别提出并强调英文摘要的完整性，即英文摘要所提供的信息必须是完整的。这样，即使读者看不懂中文，只需要通过英文摘要就能对论文的主要目的，解决问题的主要方法、过程，及主要的结果、结论和文章的创新、独到之处,有一个较为完整的了解。注重定量分析是科学研究的重要特征之一。这一点也应该体现在英文摘要的写作中。因此，在写作英文摘要时，要避免过于笼统的、空洞无物的一般论述和结论。要尽量利用文章中的最具体的语言来阐述你的方法、过程、结果和结论，这样既可以给读者一个清晰的思路，又可以使你的论述言之有物、有根有据，使读者对你的研究工作有一个清晰、全面的认识。当然，这并不意味着中文摘要就不必强调完整性。事实上，在将中文摘要单独上网发布或文章被收入中文文摘期刊时，中文摘要所提供的信息也必须具有完整性。另外，由于东、西方文化传统存在很大的差别，我国长期以来的传统教育都有些过分强调知识分子要“谦虚谨慎、戒骄戒躁”，因此我国学者在写作论文时，一般不注重(或不敢)突出表现自己所做的贡献。这一点与西方的传统恰恰相反。西方的学者在写论文时总是很明确地突出自己的贡献，突出自己的创新、独到之处。西方的读者在阅读论文时也总是特别关注论文有什么创新独到之处，否则就认为论文是不值得读的。由于中、英文摘要的读者对象不同，鉴于上述两方面的因素，笔者认为论文中的中、英文摘要不必强求一致。
5.2 《EI》对英文摘要的写作要求
目前，由作者写作的英文摘要，绝大多数都比较粗糙，离参与国际交流的要求相距甚远，需要进行大的修改，有时甚至是重写。这一方面是由于作者英文写作水平有限;另一方面也由于大多数作者对英文摘要的写作要求和国际惯例不甚了解。下面就根据《EI》对英文摘要的写作要求，谈谈如何写好科技论文的英文摘要。
《EI》中国信息部要求信息性文摘(Information Abstract)应该用简洁、明确的语言(一般不超过150 words)将论文的“目的(Purposes)”，主要的研究“过程(Procedures)”及所采用的“方法(Methods)”，由此得到的主要“结果(Results)”和得出的重要“结论(Conclusions)”表达清楚。如有可能，还应尽量提一句论文结果和结论的应用范围和应用情况。也就是说，要写好英文摘要，作者必须回答好以下几个问题：
1) 本文的目的或要解决的问题(What I want to do?)
2) 解决问题的方法及过程(How I did it?)
3) 主要结果及结论(What results did I get and what conclusions can I draw)
4) 本文的创新、独到之处(What is new and original in this paper?)
5.3 英文摘要各部分的写作
根据《EI》对英文摘要的写作要求，英文摘要的写作并没有一成不变的格式，但一般来说，英文摘要是对原始文献不加诠释或评论的准确而简短的概括，并要求它能反映原始文献的主要信息。
5.3.1 目的（What I want to do?）
目的。主要说明作者写作此文的目的，或本文主要解决的问题。一般来说，一篇好的英文摘要，一开头就应该把作者本文的目的或要解决的主要问题非常明确地交待清楚。必要时，可利用论文中所列的最新文献，简要介绍前人的工作，但这种介绍一定要极其简练。在这方面，《EI》提出了两点具体要求：
1） Eliminate or minimize background information(不谈或尽量少谈背景信息)．
2） Avoid repeating the title or part of the title in the first sentence of the abstract (避免在摘要的第一句话重复使用题目或题目的一部分)。
5.3.2 过程与方法(How I did it?)
过程及方法。主要说明作者主要工作过程及所用的方法，也应包括众多的边界条件，使用的主要设备和仪器。在英文摘要中，过程与方法的阐述起着承前启后的作用。开头交待了要解决的问题(What I want to do)之后，接着要回答的自然就是如何解决问题(How I did it)，而且，最后的结果和结论也往往与研究过程及方法是密切相关的。大多数作者在阐述过程与方法时，最常见的问题是泛泛而谈、空洞无物，只有定性的描述，使读者很难清楚地了解论文中解决问题的过程和方法。因此，在说明过程与方法时，应结合(指向)论文中的公式、实验框图等来进行阐述，这样可以既给读者一个清晰的思路，又给那些看不懂中文(但却可以看懂公式、图、表等)的英文读者以一种可信的感觉。
5.3.3 结果和结论(What results did I get and what conclusions can I draw?)
结果和结论部分代表着文章的主要成就和贡献，论文有没有价值，值不值得读者阅读，主要取决于你所获得的结果和所得出的结论。因此，在写作结果和结论部分时，一般都要尽量结合实验结果或仿真结果的图、表、曲线等来加以说明，使结论部分言之有物，有根有据；同时，对那些看不懂中文的英文读者来说，通过这些图表，结合英文摘要的说明就可以比较清楚地了解论文的结果和结论。也只有这样，论文的结论才有说服力。如有可能，在结尾部分还可以将论文的结果和他人最新的研究结果进行比较，以突出论文的主要贡献和创新、独到之处(回答What is new and original in this paper)。
5.3.4 如何提高英文摘要的文字效能
《EI》很看重英文摘要的文字效能。为了提高文字效能，应尽量删去所有多余的字、句。在这方面，《EI》提出了两个原则：
1) Limit the abstract to new information(摘要中只谈新的信息)。
2) trive for brevity(尽量使摘要简洁)。就目前来看，由于大多数作者在英文写作方面都比较欠缺，因此，由作者所写的英文摘要离《EI》的要求相距甚远。有的作者写出很长的英文摘要，但文字效能很低，多余的字、句很多；有的作者写的英文摘要很短，但也存在多余的字句。总而言之，就是文字的信息含量少。因此，《EI》中国信息部还对英文摘要的写作提出了以下几点具体要求。
5.3.5 关于英文摘要的句法
关于英文摘要的句法，《EI》提出了以下3个一般原则：
1) 尽量用短句(use short sentences)。
2) 描述作者的工作一般用过去时态(因为工作是在过去做的)，但在陈述由这些工作所得出的结论时，应该用现在时态。
3) 一般都应使用动词的主动语态，如：写成A exceeds B比写成B is exceeded by A更好。
科技论文英文摘要的撰写
0 引言
摘要的定义为：“以提供文献内容梗概为目的, 不加评论和补充解释, 简明、确切地记叙文献重要内容的短文”。由于大多数检索系统只收录论文的摘要部分，或其数据库中只有摘要部分免费提供, 并且有些读者只阅读摘要而不读全文或常根据摘要来判断是否需要阅读全文, 因此摘要的清楚表达十分重要。好的英文摘要对于增加论文的被检索和引用机会、吸引读者、扩大影响起着不可忽视的作用。
1 摘要的类型与基本内容
1.1 摘要的类型
根据内容的不同, 摘要可分为以下三大类：报道性摘要、指示性摘要和报道-指示性摘要。
（1）报道性摘要(informative abstract)：也称信息型摘要或资料性摘要。其特点是全面、简要地概括论文的目的、方法、主要数据和结论。通常, 这种摘要可部分地取代阅读全文。
（2）指示性摘要 (indicative abstract)：也称为说明性摘要、描述性摘要（descriptive abstract）或论点摘要（topic abstract）。一般只用二、三句话概括论文的主题, 而不涉及论据和结论, 多用于综述、会议报告等。此类摘要可用于帮助读者决定是否需要阅读全文。
（3）报道-指示性摘要(informative-indicative abstract)：以报道性摘要的形式表述一次文献中信息价值较高的部分, 以指示性摘要的形式表述其余部分。
传统的摘要多为一段式, 在内容上大致包括引言(Introduction)、材料与方法(Materials and Methods)、结果(Results)和讨论(Discussion)等主要方面, 即IMRAD（Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion）结构的写作模式。
1980年代出现了另一种摘要文体, 即“结构式摘要”(structured abstract), 它是报道性摘要的结构化表达，强调论文摘要应含有较多的信息量。结构式摘要与传统摘要的差别在于，前者便于读者了解论文的内容, 行文中用醒目的字体（黑体、全部大写或斜体等）直接标出目的、方法、结果和结论等标题。
1. 2 摘要的基本结构和内容
摘要本质上是一篇高度浓缩的论文, 所以其构成与论文主体的IMRAD结构是对应的。摘要应包括以下内容梗概：（1）目的：研究工作的前提、目的和任务, 所涉及的主题范围；（2）方法：所用的理论、条件、材料、手段、装备、程序等；（3）结果：观察、实验的结果、 数据、性能等；（4）结果的分析、比较、评价、应用, 提出的问题, 今后的课题, 假设、启发、建议、预测等；（5）其它：不属于研究、研制、调查的主要目的, 但具有重要的信息价值。
一般地说, 报道性摘要中（2）、（3）、（4）应相对详细, （1）和（5）则相对简略。指示性摘要则相反。
结构式摘要与传统一段式摘要的区别在于，其分项具体, 可使读者更方便、快速地了解论文的各项内容。统计表明, MEDLINE检索系统所收录的生物医学期刊目前已有60%以上采用了结构式摘要。我国有些医学类期刊在20世纪90年代初开始采用结构式摘要, 并对其使用效果和进一步优化进行了较为深入的探讨。
结构式摘要的构架及简要说明 (1)目的(Objective)：研究的问题、目的或设想等；( 2)设计(Design)：研究的基本设计, 样本的选择、分组、诊断标准和随访情况等； (3)单位(Setting)：说明开展研究的单位（是研究机构、大专院校, 还是医疗机构）； (4)对象(Patients, Participants)：研究对象（患者等）的数目、选择过程和条件等； (5)处置(Interventions)：处置方法的基本特征, 使用何种方法以及持续的时间等；( 6)主要结果测定(Main Outcome Measures)：主要结果是如何测定、完成的； (7)结果(Results)：研究的主要发现（应给出确切的置信度和统计学显著性检验值）； (8)结论(Conclusions)：主要结论及其潜在的临床应用。
实际上, 8个层次比较适合于临床医学类原始论文(Original Article)。对于综述类论文,其结构式摘要应包括以下6个方面：(1) 目的(Objective), (2) 资料来源(Data Sources), (3) 资料选择(Study Selection), (4) 数据提炼(Data Extraction), (5) 资料综合(Data Synthesis), (6) 结论(Conclusions)。
为节省篇幅, 有些期刊在使用中对上述结构式摘要进行了适当简化, 如“New England Journal of Medicine”采用背景(Background)、方法(Methods)、结果(Results)、结论(Conclusions)等4个方面。
英文摘要中的常用句型及词汇
1 介绍文章作者观点和研讨课题内容
1.1 文章内容与作者观点
present, describe, report, introduce, explain, illustrate, deal with
1.2 文章研究课题
study, consider, discuss, investigate, analyze, state, develop
1.3 文章涉及范围
contain, cover, include
The effect/sensitivity/function of certain … was observed/detected/studied…
The author/writer presents/looks at/explores…
1.4 综述与概括
review, summary, outline, abstract
1.5 文章重点
concentrate, place, give, be, pay,
attention is concentrated on, there is a focus on, attention is paid to, the emphasis is on
The paper focuses on/ mainly discusses / deals with / describes/ reports on /analyzes…
1.6 文章目的
The purpose for/of/ aim of/ objective of this study is to explain……
In order to…, This paper describes…. This paper intends/aims to…
This paper intends/aims to discuss /compares … with…
2 介绍文章成果
2.1 成果的获取和开发
provide for, develop, establish, give, be designed to do sth, solve, record, furnish, realize, achieve, produce, construct, improve, be deduced from, be derived from, be obtained for
2.2 观察和证明
show, observe, monitor, find, note, demonstrate, indicate, exhibit, point out
The result shows / It proved / The authors found that…
2.3 运算和计量
calculate, estimate, measure, determine
2.4 应用与用途
be used to, be applied to
2.5 评估与比较
evaluate, assess, compare, agree with
2.6 试验与实验
test, experiment on, be carried out, be designed to do sth
A(n) study / investigation was made /designed to …
2.7 论证与依据
be based on, based on, be taken as reference
2.8 推荐与建议
be proposed for, suggest, suggestions be made for, recommend, recommendations are made
The authors suggest /consider that…
2.9 结论
It was concluded that, be arrived at…
3 介绍进一步研究的必要性、方向和关键问题
need for, necessity to do sth, require, necessary, describe, expect, important
